Macro & Micro Economics Of PRC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Macro & Micro Economics Of PRC - Essay Example PRC is consciously making effort to lower its inflation rate and/or manage inflation expectations by raising bank reserve ratio of deposits through a directive from PRC’s Central Bank. This brings as to the first question as to how will this affect the balance sheets of both the banks and the PRC’s Central Bank. As regard to the banks, their assets, particular deposits will decrease and the same amount will increase the reserve in the "Liabilities" portion in their Balance Sheet.   Expectedly, the assets of the Central Bank either in receivables or deposits will increase as well as their reserves. Normally, banks hold two bank reserves, one is used for cashing checks or satisfying client's withdrawals while the other is called "legal reserves" or sometimes called â€Å"federal reserves† or central bank reserves. This is the specific reserves that the PRC’s Central Bank wanted to be raised by the banks, and for this year alone, the reserve requirement rat io (RRR) has been raised for the 5th time to a record high of 21 percent according to Xinhua.  Ã‚   PRC’s Central Bank recent move which is a â€Å"contractionary monetary policy† according to Li-Gang Liu, could help manage excessive liquidity in the market but the economic growth of PRC will slow down, however steady during the next two years. Asian Development Bank said in its 2011 Asian Development Outlook that â€Å"there is very little risk of hard landing because growth momentum remains robust for the medium term†.†. As compared to last year the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth will slow to 9.3% in 2011, a dip from 10.3% annual growth in 2010 (Global Times), mainly due to stubborn inflation this year. One determinant factor of inflation is the Consumer Price Index (CPI), as the CPI rise so is the inflation. Consumer consumption is one of the major components in arriving at the total GDP, the others are government expenditures, gross investment a nd the net of exports versus imports. Consumer consumption may not be a factor at this time because wages will not outpace production. Government expenditures were already programmed to pay maturing foreign loans, hence will be constant, while investment will decrease minimally due to the expected increase in interest rates. The one that will affect most in computing the GDP is the net difference between exports and imports. As I analyze it, imports will continue to outpace exports due primarily to higher demands for fuel consumption, which are outsourced externally. The World Bank said "strong domestic demand and relative price changes have reduced the importance of external trade for China" (Reuters.com) There might be an oversupply of products which will considerably affect prices and therefore have an effect on equilibrium. As regards the aggregate expenses, again this will tend to below as the net effect of imports versus exports is high. PRC’s Central Bank raising of RRR will certainly have an effect on the money multiplier since it will

Cultural Differences as an Issue of the Past Essay Example for Free

Cultural Differences as an Issue of the Past Essay In the daily lives of individuals cultural challenges is often experienced. It is known that due to migration various ethnicities have already been present in the American Society. For such reason, more and more foreigners are able to work, live and be naturalized as American citizens. Although these migrants are able adapt to the lifestyle of Americans, their ethnic culture still remain within their norms, values and culture. Therefore in this situation the American cultures as well as the native culture of the immigrants are mixed. Although such situation is believed not post any concerns, it had been proven by many analysts, authors and other individuals that cultural challenges are very much present in the society. Culture is known to be the way of life of a person. Therefore, culture defines a person. However, what if a person has a variety of culture surrounding him or her? How does he or she deal with such given situation? Diversity, as said by Thomas Sowell is a concept wherein used by many individuals. But still, the authors believe that no person truly has a grasp of the real meaning of diversity. He utilized the example of the American people acknowledging the 4th of July as their day of independence yet no one truly sees the importance of such day. Moreover, it leads to an extensive criticism to the United States of America. In short, more and more people recognize that there is diversity but a few only know the significance of such word. (Sowell 2008) From my personal perspective, people are currently in the mode of shifting beliefs due to the fact that diversity is still a new concept being learned by many. In the United States, there had been many immigrants accepting their green cards therefore acquiring all the rights and legitimacy as an American citizen. Most of such immigrants already have their whole family with them. Yet, the concept of having to life with other cultural norms except the American culture is still not fully accepted by many Americans. For most Americans the United States is for natural born Americans only but due to the concept of globalization and diversity such situation cannot be hindered. Therefore, diversity and cultural challenges should be accepted and resolved. Similar to what the article of Carole Parker, differences should be managed in order to crate a peaceful society. (Parker 2008) In addition to the concepts of diversity, concerns regarding the combination of cultures are an issue raised. Given that there are Asian, Hispanics, African-Americans, white Americans and other ethnicities present in the United States, cultures of all these ethnic backgrounds will naturally collide with each other due to its variations. However organizations and individuals must learn that differences as only challenges that are needed to be faced in order for them to fully integrate the society into a peaceful and diverse state. In conclusion, the cultural challenges are truly present in the society due to the diverse norms and traditions which is currently present. Through proper knowledge and information regarding matters of culture, the concept of managing differences and colliding of ideas must be done by different organization as a solution to the problems. If cultural challenges are retained only as a challenge, a range of problems will arise such as, discomfort, annoyance, irritation, and etc as an escalating process of conflict. Before such development arise it is better than solutions are present therefore, wider array of conflicts may be hindered. Through the mitigation processes and proper information provided, cultural challenges will remain as a thing of the past. Therefore, the challenges that were faced will remain and it shall be converted as a norm, a value or a tradition for the whole American society. References Sowell, T. (2008). Understanding and Managing Diversity (4th Edition) In C. Harvey M. J. Allard (Eds) pp. 69-74. United States of America: Prentice Hall. Parker, C. (2008). Understanding and Managing Diversity (4th Edition) In C. Harvey M. J. Allard (Eds) pp. 28-30. United States of America: Prentice Hall.

The Impact of Occupational Segregation on Working Conditions

The Impact of Occupational Segregation on Working Conditions Zoe Stux â€Å"Critically evaluate the claim that occupational segregation in the British workforce leads to lower pay, lower status and increased insecurity among women employees† Occupational segregation finds it roots in the social behaviour of society, by definition this means a separation within job roles by gender. Feminist movements paved the way for women to have equal life styles and occupational choices for women in Britain. Legislation currently in place would lead to the assumption that inequality is not possible in today’s organisations given that there are anti discrimination and equal pay laws to protect the workforce without having to rely on the trade unions. Yet, when considering the effects of direct and indirect discrimination it becomes apparent how an organisation may apply a condition of employment to all employees which can be weighted to affect a large proportion of one gender over another if it is so designed. It is necessary here to demonstrate that current legislation allows some discrimination, for example, a disabled woman requiring a carer to help with personal duties is allowed to state only women can apply. Despite the ab ility to discriminate there is evidence to suggest that equalities within the genders are lessening and women are becoming more present in senior roles, the assumption is that the equality will pass from the top down the chain to affect the gender segregation on a larger scale lessening the increasing levels of discrimination over time. In contrast it could be the divide is not diminishing, and in fact current occupational segregation retains a level of inequality between the genders with regards pay, status and increasing insecurity. Cockburn recently (1991 p123) states â€Å"it will remain a fact of life that women are severely disadvantaged compared to men in their career opportunities†. This evaluation will assess the suggestions that women’s inferior place within the workforce leads to lower levels of pay for the same roles, lower status in general placed on their roles and the increasing insecurity of the roles performed by women whilst critically debating the various viewpoints to look at how the relationship between the employer and employee is introduced and subsequently managed. Whilst considering the view that women are disadvantaged through social constraints, biological constraints and personal choice allowing for the impact in Britain for future generations. As recently as 2004 it is suggested work status is far from equal with most management structures showing primary male domination. However, whilst many companies continue to operate within these male confines there have been an increasing number of women in management roles within recent years breaking the inequality traditions in status. However in line with feminist theories these areas are under represented within the professions and senior management. For those that achieve success on equal grounding it is often the case that women will be required to fit the male value system already established within the organisation, thus suggesting that women may achieve levels of perceived power but the opportunity to make decisions affecting the power will be biased towards the male institutionalised practices already in place. This can translate to a new mind set and change in belief system which for some this can be difficult to adapt to. For those that do not achieve a level of seniority occupations tend to be limited to clerical or secretarial roles and are primarily held as part time (Rose, E (2004) p557). Rose successfully illustrates for a small percentage of the workforce success is possible however for the masses lower status roles are the norm, assuming that these levels of employment are lower down the organisational chain the level of reward will be suitable to the roles therefore less than the male managers. However according to the equal opportunities commission (hereby referred to as EOC) in 2005 there was an average twenty percent difference between the genders in each employment section with regards wages earned on an average hourly rate. Although banking was a much higher rate at forty percent and not included in the average. It could be argued as Rose states above most female roles are primarily part time which would lead to less remuneration and increased insecurity. Although the same study shows dif ferentials between high profile roles which are assumed to be full time with the bias favouring males within these roles. Historically a biological viewpoint was used to control the workforce, and all collective bargaining would have been pursued by the trade unions led by men bargaining for men. Trade unions and workers alike were concerned with controlling wage levels and entry into trade ensuring the skills required by industry were sought after therefore controlling the flow of work and the financial demands that could be made, if women had been able to contribute to these tasks the reward level would have decreased as women were deemed cheap labour. Whilst this would be beneficial to employers who would decrease outgoings and protect profit margin it would be detrimental to the male workforce and unions, illustrating an impact of male trade unionist methods to drive towards male domination in the workplace. Biological theory was used to manipulate society to believe women were not capable of carrying out physical labour as men were; this served the purpose of providing a reason to prevent female pr esence in physical industry and at the same time set a cultural way of thinking. Biological theory argues that men are naturally stronger than women due to the way the body is constructed and this permits men to carry out certain tasks woman can not. Social acceptance of this granted the woman’s place was at home given the childbearing and nurturing ties to the female. In contrast biologically men’s behavior is seen as predatory and aggressive. However, there is the suggestion that roles are culturally determined as opposed to biologically, and the parental relationship cements social development. Children are manipulated by social norms at a young age to reinforce gender differences, for example a girl wears pink and a boy wears blue, a girl is given a doll or a tea set and a boy receives a car or a football. As the child gets older media influence will be introduced through adverts, popular television or movies to reinforce the socially acceptable roles for the genders (Oakley 2005). In support for this idea the functionality of the two genders is underpinned by analysis from several societies which concluded that there were no tasks with the exception of child birth that could be completed by only one of the two genders (Rose 2004). Biological attributes do not restrict women from roles; this was further supported through evidence observed during the Second World War where women were forced to take on men’s roles because of the shortage of people available. Based on this assumption it could be suggested that the divides seen in today’s workplace are intentional on the part of the female workforce who chose not to be equal and accept the pay differences secure in the knowledge that their income is secondary and whilst potentially insecure in the employment world it is not important to the family world and therefore of little consequence. Despite the Second World War the biological view would continue after the war had finished. This swift change in attitude back to the old social norm would prove to be difficult for some women to cope with. The myth that biologically women were incapable was squashed, however the value system that had created social structure before the war was still present with the men who returned therefore the social constraints were restored. However, the awareness of women being physically capable was a reality for society to develop and accept it was social and cultural beliefs that stopped women from working. There became an understanding that a reserve army of labour could be called on when required by policy makers and employers alike to achieve common goals, exploiting women into the workplace when it suited those in control. Male perception did not change and work was seen as a secondary focus to family, this created a vacuum where women were manipulated by others to conform to social rul es. It would appear modern society has not moved on that much, according to the equal opportunities commission in 2006, sixty seven percent of the female population of working age were in employment verses seventy eight percent of men under the same criteria, this would fit within social assumptions today where to a certain degree women remain primary family carers. Interestingly this research quantifies that forty three percent of women working were in part time employment whilst only eight percent of the men fulfilled part time roles, this would support the assumption that men remain the primary breadwinners in mass society. Purcell (2000) explains that from the 1980s changes have been seen within British society, until the 1980s women were active in the workplace until the birth of their first child, when they would remain inactive until school age or another child was born and the cycle would repeat. However by the end of the 1980s two thirds of mothers were active within the wo rkplace and approximately half of these returned to work within nine months utilising family and childcare options. Therefore gender changes and opinions within society have been demonstrated resulting in the counter argument for the gender nurturing social arguments demonstrated earlier. In contrast there is also the view that Britain’s economic climate has dictated these levels of work as increasingly families need to draw two wages in order to cover the high cost of living which is not relative to the rises seen in salaries. Supporting the view of exploitation further is the investigation of the reserve army of labour which proves to be beneficial to industries. The foundation of this idea is in Marxist explanations, suggesting that capitalism required a secondary outlay of potential recruits who could be relied on in times of both economic recession and boom to provide a flow of supply and demand in terms of workforce. This is essentially a flexible workforce with few rights and therefore the inability to make demands on the employer, whilst the employer has the right to reduce wages and increase the rate and extent of the worker exploitation at will. This is extreme and in today’s society would be tapered to meet legislation and social standards, although this does not necessarily mean the exploitation has ended, it has simply taken a different guise. In their book Women in Britain today (1986) Beechey and Whitelegg conclude that women would be less able to resist redundancy due to lack of trade union representation and their lower financial value within the workplace which makes them a high risk to increasing insecurity. However this study is dated and whilst in some areas trade union representation is valid this is not the case across mass private industry. Beechey and Whitelegg go on to suggest women are more likely to accept work at a lower rate than a male counterpart given they will not be aggressive and negotiate, and from a political viewpoint unemployed women are less likely to register unemployed as with primary incomes from their husbands they would not be eligible for benefits, thus supporting the claim that the segregation between the two genders within the workplace leads to insecurity for women. However in contrast to the insecurity being suggested this theory would imply when Britain went through a recession in the 20th Century the part time and flexible lower paid workforce would have been the first to suffer, yet this was not the case. The answer to this would be, for the same reason the reserve army of labour was considered a good idea, when in recession the primary function is to save long term financial plans, therefore making commercial sense to retain the cheaper labour on the workforce inadvertently providing incre ased security during times of recession and economic crisis. There is mass evidence to support the perception that management and trade unions perceive female workers to have a lower commitment to paid work. It is largely these ideals which populate within the labour markets of today, showing women to be secondary to their male counterparts, exploited at will, to control the labour markets and placed in insecure roles because they are not valued (Purcell 2000 p133).This is also supported by Homans (1987 cited in Rose 2004) where interview techniques were questioned when direct discrimination was uncovered and the reasons provided illustrated the view that women will project a lack of commitment to the role, either requiring time off to have a family or caring for an existing family. In contrast Rose (2004) establishes that although the majority of organizations have been traditionally dominated by men, there are a percentage of female senior managers pulling through to powerful positions and this appears to be increasing. In 1991 nine percent of the total women surveyed represented a small number of executive managers and directors. However in 1998 this increased to eighteen percent and four percent of these were director level. On the other hand in 2001 the number dropped to nine percent, although this figure did not include executive directors, therefore there is no like for like comparison making analysis difficult to draw conclusions from. It may be the changing social climates of the late 20th and early 21st Centuries have led to this change in female presence. With a change in social attitudes it is possible to see both genders have been suppressed with women missing the workplace opportunities and men increasingly missing family life. A movement in social acceptance can now see men remain at home while the woman goes out to work reversing the traditional roles. However whilst changes to social thinking are beginning there is the suggestion that the perception of women in power is a false one, despite the movements into senior roles the movements come from organisational restructure, changing job titles and removing levels of management to make opportunities less. Therefore the reality does not translate to total equality as power would be cascaded back up the chain towards the men. It would appear the opportunities for development and progression become stifled and the female workforce are only able to reach a particular point in the structure before they hit the ‘glass ceiling’ and their progression is halted. The lack of development in many cases appears to be attributed to women taking time off to have families, the assumption then is that by the time they return to work priorities have changed and long unsociable hours are a problem, leading to static working practices and fewer women successfully climbing the ladder. It appears industry is asking women to make a choice between motherhood and career but not working to aid the two in working side by side. Kirton and Greene (2001 p46) appear to agree, women have to make a choice, they place women at a disadvantage in the workplace due to less experience, lack of training and education compared to male counterparts. However they go on to suggest there are two counter points that can have a positive effect on a woman’s career; by working uninterrupted without family breaks it demonstrates commitment combined with the ability to project a long term ambition through working steadily and when required including late nights. Given that not all women will want to start a family these restrictions will not apply to all, however the statistics seem to indicate these are the minority of women or in exceptional cases women will have both and make sacrifices within the family to return to work with the aid of a non work support network of family and frie nds or childcare. Although the EOC statistics show a high percentage of female workers in part time employment it remains that over half the employed women surveyed were working in full time roles. Sly et al (1998) relate education and occupational qualifications as key to the success of women with the workplace. In 1997 eighty six percent of women qualified from A Level or above were economically active whereas fifty two percent of those with no formal qualifications were inactive. On the other hand both full and part time roles primarily fall within the clerical, secretarial, service and sales areas of the employment sphere as a total out of this collective group over sixty percent of the workforce were women. For the same exercise with the male workforce related to roles such as managers, administrators, craft, plant and machine operators, the statistics accounted for sixty percent of the male working population reinforcing the gender prejudice. Although there will always be a gender differential b etween traditional industries such as construction, manufacturing, education and public health despite drives to change these dynamics, it is worth noting the most recent study in 2006 states that women’s employment has increased seventy percent since 1975, yet in contrast fifty seven percent of women use either part time, flexible working time or home working in order to meet family commitments as well as complete the economic requirements of a day job supporting the theory that gender segregation leads to lower status and increased insecurity for women. Discrimination with the workplace would appear to be subtle and careful. By definition organizational segregation is the separation of the two genders within the workplace environment. However within this concept there are two styles to be considered. Horizontal segregation, where the workforce is primarily one specific gender, for example, within the construction industry men make up ninety percent of the entire workforce as detailed on the labour force survey for 2006 October to December, this can be attributed to the strong male social values within the industry. In comparison the same survey shows public admin, education and health is primarily a female sector role with women accounting for seventy percent of the total. However what are not evident are the levels employed by women and how the senior managers are gender split. Alternatively, there is also vertical segregation, where the opportunity for career progression is tapered to a particular gender. The implication with vertical segregation is that women would be affected given that it is women who are less likely to fulfil roles within management or senior executive posts. Liff ((1995) p476) suggests that the reason women fail to make the career progression which causes vertical segregation can be found in the division of labour within social confines. A manager is expected to work long hours and within this principle lays the issue, as British women whether working or not are still expected to carry out the same level of domestic duties for the family resulting in the inability to work late often which is suggested makes women unsuitable for progression to management and senior executive levels therefore reducing them to flexible part time roles with low pay and less security than management positions. Within the two types of segregation the workforce is split further, two sections primary and secondary, otherwise termed dual labour markets. The primary labour market is attributed to high pay, excellent working conditions, favourable promotional prospects and job security, secondary sector workers are disposable and easily replaced and transferring between the two markets is difficult either within the same or different organisations. Rose (2004), states that women are the primary of the two genders to appear in the secondary category, due to their low status in society and tendency to not belong to a trade union. However in contrast to the dual labour theory there are limitations not considered, workers within the textile industry where the job roles are similar whether primary or secondary still see a pay discrimination due to gender, the theory also fails to take into account the moving social scales of today’s society which sees many women in primary roles but in areas w here women see a high percentage of employment, for example, public health care and education. The 2006 EOC study for 2005 illustrates within the high paid jobs category, the gender gaps on four areas have a close to equal split however the other six areas show large discrepancies suggesting primarily male management. What is difficult to ascertain from the research on the areas of wide discrepancy gender split are the number of women who have chosen to work within limited roles with limited responsibilities due to family commitments verses the number of women forced into these roles because of the male constructed value system dictating they are inferior to the role of management. From the 1970s work ethics changed to reflect an increasingly flexible work pattern. Consumer society expected faster and quicker trends to be available to them resulting in the change of work ethic hence seen. The 1970’s saw a requirement for flexible low income workers to manage the production lines based on the changes from Fordism production. The reserve army of labour would become ideally suited for this and naturally this comprised of women. Loveridge and Mok (1996 cited in Mullins p165) confirm that women encompass an ‘out-group’ which makes the basis of an industrial reserve pool providing additional labour when required by society. However there is the suggestion that in the 1970s this was not a forced choice for women but one entered into willingly, although the family remained the primary concern there was also increasing financial pressures as social movements changed. Hakim (1998) supports this and suggests that there are three types of women who choose their preferences about home and work. There is a home centred attitude which prefers a home life to a work environment, a work centred view which for some are childless but have a strong commitment to their work and finally the adaptive who want a little of both but do not want to commit to a career. Hakim also suggested that with regards to a woman’s qualification there was a correlation between them marrying men with a higher qualification than their own thus leading to the assumption that they would rely on this as a primary income therefore resulting in family becoming the primary focus. This would indicate that it is not viable to apply the same theory to all women as there are differing personal choices within these statistics which can not be quantified. In contrast to Hakim, Crompton et al (1999) argue that it is the structure of the labour market which moulds the individuals career, suggesting men will turn to traditional male jobs whilst women will opt for traditional female roles reinforcing male roles as aggressive and physical whilst female roles are caring and nurturing, strengthening the structures that produce the gender differences which in turn make it difficult for those within the confines to pursue a career not stereotypically for their own gender. Thus, supporting the suggestion that women continue to be subjected to discrimination, which provides them with disadvantages within the employment relationship including, lower pay, lower status and power and greater insecurity. Employment relationships have undoubtly changed over recent years along with social belief systems and the relationship between the two is intensely fused. There is no denying that women have more freedom within the workplace in today’s society, although there are still constraints to this freedom it is progress none the less. However it would appear these freedoms come with painful choices to be made; in the cold light of day reality will push to suggest it is not possible to have it all. Women with children will require a degree of flexibility in order to enjoy their families, however this does not have to mean choosing lower status, part time, insecure employment at the expense of high profile full time management roles however the support needed from colleagues and family is greater than those who do chose to not work full time, although the balance is possible to obtain. It has taken nearly three decades to make the small improvements seen since the 1970s, if this is followed through to the natural conclusion those with the power now can influence others performing up the ranks within the labour market and as such in another thirty years there should be considerable improvements on where we are today. Attitudes and beliefs take time to change and as it would appear to be the social constraints of attitude that find us in a gender segregation of the workforce it stands to reason that these differences will lessen as attitudes change. There is always the risk that as we see poor political decisions made affecting social policy there will be a reversal of attitudes. However with the economy balancing precariously it is necessary in many cases for both men and women to work full time and aspire to be the best of their field and maximise their potential in order to provide for themselves and their families providing a stable economic background. With regards the claim that occupational segregation leads to lower pay there is some truth to this – what is difficult to assess is the level those are accepted by women and the level they are forced. It is not quantified how many women within the workforce challenged their wage to be equal to that of men. Although lower status compared to male counterparts is at present unfortunate as social policies change and those women there now cascade down to others there is the opportunity to improve these rates and become level within the management and decision making roles. Increased insecurity is difficult to define as by its nature it implies that the insecurity is becoming worse. However in order to understand this it is necessary to understand how the workforce feels about this. The assumption that women’s roles are secondary to that of their husbands would indicate there is no insecurity as his salary would form the main income. However this does not take into account w omen who are the sole breadwinner and in some cases have a family to bring up. Where it could be argued that the inequality in pay and status is in fact advantageous as should cut backs be necessary the lower incomes will survive over the higher levels which make a bigger financial impact on the profit and loss accounts. In general it would appear there remains discrimination and prejudice towards women in the labour market which manifests through lower salaries and status however progress has been made and will continue to be made in order to abolish these unjust differences. There is a requirement needed to understand the assumptions on gender differences by senior managers of today. When designing policy it is becoming ever more important to offer individualism and flexibility as opposed to static terms and conditions. By understanding the diversity within the workforce there will derive an understanding of how to motive the team and therefore produce exceptional results which of course is the aim of all good Chief Executives. Bibliography Rose ED (2004) Employment Relations 2nd Edition, FT Prentice Hall Liff S (1995) Industrial Relations Theory and Practice in Britain, Blackwell Business Hollinshead G, Nicholls P, Tailby S (2000) Employee Relations, FT Pitman Publishing Oakley A (2005), Gender Women and Social Science, Policy Press Beechey V, Whitelegg E (1986) Women in Britain Today, Open University Press Mullins LJ (1996) Management and Organisational Behaviour 4th Edition, Pitman Publishing Kirton G, Greene AM (2000) The Dynamics of Managing Diversity: A Critical Approach, Oxford Butterworth Heinemann Crompton R, Harris F (1999) Attitudes, Womens Employment, and the Changing  Domestic Division of Labour: A Cross-National Analysis, Oxford University Press. Purcell K (2000) Gendered Employment Insecurity, London Routledge Ledwith S, Colgan F (1996) Women in Organizations, Macmillan Business Hakim C (1998) Developing a Sociology for the Twenty-First Century: Preference Theory, British Journal of Sociology, 49(1), 137-143. Colgan F, Ledwith S (2002) Gender and Diversity: Reshaping Union Democracy, Employee Relations, 24(2), 167-189 Grimshaw D, Whitehouse G, Zetlin D (2001) Changing Pay Systems Occupational Concentration and the Gender Pay Gap, Industrial Relations, 32(3), 209-229 Hogue K, Noon M (2004) Equal Opportunities Policy and Practice in Britain in Work Employment and Society, 18(3) 481-506 Equal Opportunities Commission (August 2007) Facts about Men and Women 2006; http://www.eoc.org.uk/pdf/facts_about_GB_2006.pdf Communities and Local Government Labour Force Survey (August 2007) Tackling Occupational Segregation Fact Sheet; http://www.womenandequalityunit.gov.uk

Chinas Reformation Essay -- History, Chinese Communist Party

In most works of art, the tone, costumes, and setting can largely influence the mood of the story. A deep examination of the mentioned attributes can possibly reveal latent messages and intents of the artists. This is evident in both Lao She’s Teahouse and China’s The Founding of a Republic. The Founding of a Republic was funded and produced by Chinese government as a celebration of the 60th anniversary of the People’s Republic of China; as a result, it widely regarded as propaganda. Lao’s Teahouse, however, was written about the Chinese revolution from a common man’s perspective. These differences in the interpretation of the Chinese revolution, along with the intent of the presentations, reveal the creators’ underlying political messages. When The Founding of a Republic was released by the Chinese government in 2009, it was dismissed, often prematurely, as communist propaganda. While biased interpretations of the Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) are somewhat explicit through-out the film, the historical events shown are accurate. However, the events portrayed are primarily the malicious acts of the Nationalists, ignoring many of the equally heinous acts of the Communists. An example would be the assassination of 13 Communist party members. While this educates the audience of some of the tragic events of the Chinese Civil War, the communists are clearly portrayed as the virtuous heroes. The presentation of the characters in The Founding of a Republic gives another look into the Government’s hidden messages. The Nationalists are often shown with a negative connotation. The officials are shown wearing black or very dark outfits and are commonly surrounded by armed soldiers. The KMT scene... ...and even girls for money and to invoke fear (63). The government also seized virtually any property they wanted by claiming it was â€Å"traitor’s property† (74). Evidently the Teahouse paints a much darker picture of the Chinese Revolution. It offers a common man’s perspective to the economic decline and increased corruption that sometimes went unnoticed in the elite’s eyes. The Founding of a Republic told a much different view of the reform movement from the Communist elite’s eyes. The chosen portrayal of a benevolent CCP and malicious KMT is largely biased, although most of the events are historically accurate. The film can be categorized as Chinese Communist propaganda, but a deeper meaning can be observed also. Examining and comparing both works of art and their viewpoint of the revolution can offer a good look as to the creators’ intent and political message.

Ethical Theories Essay

It is vital for businesses to understand the importance of ethics in this dynamic environment. Organizations that are committed to long term success recognize and realize that creating a culture where ethical behaviors are rewarded and encouraged is the ultimate key to survival and growth. According to Joseph 2003, business ethics refers to clear standards and norms that help employees to distinguish right from wrong behavior at work, while in the other hand ethical theories are theories that involve learning what is right and wrong and doing the right thing but the fact that the right thing is not straight forward brings in the subject of ethical dilemmas. Normally ethical theories can be broken up into two separate groups, teleological and deontological. Teleological theories look to the rightness of actions and are determined by the amount of good consequences they produce and focus on outcomes that are based on decisions. In teleological theories these actions are justified by th e virtue of what the actions achieve, rather than some feature of the actions themselves. In other words, decisions that benefit the overall goal and/or objective is collectively believed as a way to justify what is right or wrong. The philosophy of utilitarianism is one of the most commonly used and accepted ethical theories in the teleological group and is linked to Jeremy Bentham and John S Mills. According to Crane and Matten (2010) utilitarianism is defined as an action which is morally right if it results in the greatest amount of good for the greatest amount of people affected by the action. This principle focuses solely on the consequences of an action and it weighs the good results against the bad results. It also encourages the action that results in the greatest amount of good for all people involved. Utilitarianism is very powerful in business since it puts at the centre of the moral decision a variable which measures the value of an action. Deontological by contrast to teleological, consequences are irrelevant when determining what is right and wrong. Deontol ogical theory states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when analyzing an ethical dilemma. This means that a person will follow his or her obligations to another individual or society because upholding one’s duty is what is considered ethically correct. For instance, a deontologist will always keep his promises to a friend and will follow the law. A person who follows this  theory will produce very consistent decisions since they will be based on the individual’s set duties. Deontological ethical systems are concerned with the nature of an action that is being judged, whereas teleological judges the consequences of the act rather than the act itself. Founded by Immanuel Kant, Kantian Ethics is the iconic representation of deontological theories. Kantianism emphasizes the principles behind actions rather than an action’s results. Acting rightly thus requires being motivated by proper universal principles that treat everyone with respect. When you’re motivated by the right principles, you overcome your animal instincts and act ethically. â€Å"Until the great mass of the people shall be filled with the sense of responsibility for each other’s welfare, social justice can never be attained† (Helen Keller). John Rawls, an American moral and political philosopher, whose major work, A Theory of Ju stice, had a profound impact on ethics and political theory, believed there must be an alternative view of justice than the view of the Utilitarianism where the action that benefits the greatest is the best. Rawls believed that the principles of justice and fairness among individuals must be fair. John Rawls, social justice theory seeks to create a society where the principles of justice and fairness are provided and to ensure the protection of equal access to liberties, rights, and opportunities, as well as taking care of the least advantaged members of society. The concept is based around a social contract, which is the voluntary agreement among people with each another and the government which results in an organized society. On the other hand, the philosophy of virtue ethics, which primarily deals with the ways in which a person should live, has puzzled philosophers from the beginning of time. Recognized as one of the greatest philosophers in the world, Aristotle explains virtue as a character trait that manifests itself in habitual action. This theory claims that virtues are traits of character that you must practice actively so that they become a part of you and shapes you into becoming a virtuous ethical person. So when you are a virtuous person, you will lead a prosper ous fulfilled life. Since there are many contrasting interpretations regarding a precise definition of virtue, Aristotle theory argues that the individual needs practical wisdom, which is what a person needs in order to live well. On the contradictory side there is Milton Friedman, who is known as one of the greatest and most influential economists and public intellectuals in the  world. He was a firm believer of free-market capitalism which would in turn contribute and adequately administer wealth throughout the nation. Conservative economists, such as Milton Friedman, claim that business is most responsible when it makes profit efficiently, not when it misapplies its energy on social projects, Friedman determines that it is in the best interests for firms to maximize profits. With this Friedman is invoking a deontological, not consequentialist, theory. A consequentialist reading Friedman’s work would look to identify an ‘ends justifies the means’ sense of reasoning. Friedman however makes clear the means of achieving the ends are important, as profits need to be maximized within the regulatory environment and main focus. Along the same steps as Friedman we have Friedrich Hayek, who foll ows the libertarianism theory. Libertarianism is a set of related political philosophies that uphold liberty as the highest political end. This includes emphasis the primary of individual liberty, political freedom, and voluntary association. This theory and Hayek stress that the market will take care of itself, the ideal market is self-regulating and it limits government intervention and/or involvement in the marketplace. Libertarianism expresses that people have certain natural rights and deprivation of those rights is immoral. The entitlement theory just like Hayek, also supports a market system with little to none government intervention, this theory of justice is known by Robert Nozick. Nozick’s entitlement theory is based on the following three principles: one, a person who acquires a holding in accordance with the principle of justice in acquisition is entitled to that holding; second, a person who acquires a holding in accordance with the principle of justice in transfer, from someone else entitled to the holding, is entitled to the holding; and third, no one is entitled to a holding except by repeated ap plications of 1 and 2 (Anarchy, State, and Utopia 1974, p.151). According to the entitlement theory, people should only possess what they are actually entitled to according to these principles. Many of these theories are seen throughout the cases from the book Ethics and the Conduct of Business by John R. Boatright. Case 3.2 â€Å"Exporting Pollution† is perfect example that includes different perspectives and insights into such theories. The case summarizes as follows, Rebbeca Wright, an assistant to the vice president of environmental affairs at Americhem, savors the opportunity to apply her  training to public policy analysis that her company faces. She is convinced that cost-benefit analysis, her specialty, provides a rational decision-making tool that cuts through personal feelings and lays bare the hard economic realities. Jim Donnelly, Rebecca’s boss, started her with a draft of a memo that she thought would create a furor if it were ever made public. Jim is preparing a memo of where to establish the company’s new location of their chemical plant. The main problem is that atmospheric pollutants caused by the plant will produce a persistent haze and some of the particles have been known to cause liver cancer in a small portion of people exposed. Four main points about this location are further discussed of what would happen if this new plant opened. Milton Friedman’s, Kant, and deontologic al ethics can be seen in this case. Friedman’s perspective for this case would have Rebecca to follow her duties because this would be doing what would bring the most profits and doing what the stakeholders would want. For deontological and Kant’s perspective on the other hand, it may be argued both ways. Rebecca must follow her duties regardless of the consequences she is working towards, because she has a specific duty she must perform. If she follows the rules she would benefit herself, the company, and all the stakeholders. At the time Kantian ethics still implies that one must follow moral law regardless of the consequences. So because this new plant may cause liver cancer and inflict pain on others, Rebecca can disagree with the company’s decision on manufacturing the new plant. For this case, it depends on which side Rebecca wishes to stand as to what is ethical or not. Whether to support or not the construction of the new plant has ethical attributes with both benefits and consequences.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Lavish Pay at Harvard† is another example great example that applies to some of the theories explained. Jack R. Meyer, the head of Harvard University’s $20 billion endowment fund was under pressure to change the compensation plan for the funds top investment managers due to the high amount of endowment the top five employees were receiving. A few Harvard alumni protested, their collective concern was that they thought the amount of money being paid to those folks was obscene. The compensation of the endowment fund managers far exceeded the salaries of Harvard faculty member and administrators, including the president, who made around half a million dollars. Also, the 5% hike n tuition for Harvard students in 2004 was equal  to the $0 million paid to the two highest earners. Although Harvard has the largest university endowment, the salaries and bonuses paid to the managers greatly exceeded the compensation paid at any other school. In response to the critics , Mr. Meyer noted that the alumni failed to recognize that the amount of bonuses paid does not add up to the value they are giving the university. The schools large endowment was used in many ways to benefit students; such as the coverage of 72% financial aid for undergraduate students, no tuition for families earning less than $60,0000, and it also enable the school to increase the faculty in growing areas and to expand facilities. In the end, Harvard decided to cap the compensation of fund managers. The result was that Jack Meyer and his team of managers left to start their own investment companies, at which many could earn 10 times than they did at Harvard. Teleological and Utilitarianism theories are two great theories that can be applied to this case. With both of these theories we can argue that the amount of money that was being used to pay these managers/employees was a reasonable pay due to what they were giving back to the college. Millions of students and faculty were benefiting from Mr. Meyer and his team, which that’s the main focus on both of these theories: actions are right if they are useful or are for t he benefit of the majority and the end justifies the means. Although they were getting paid large amounts of money their return on the student population had a higher impact. Some of Nozick’s beliefs can be seen in Case 3.4 â€Å"A Sticky Situation.† Kent Graham is an account manager for Dura-Stick Label Products, which has a well-deserved reputation for quality, technical knowledge, and service that enables the company to command a premium price for its products in a very competitive market. Kent has been with Dura Stick for 2 years and his accomplishments have been going downhill and fears his time with company may end leaving his wife and children to provide for. Kent calls Jack Olson at Spray-On Inc. about landing a large account. Jack informs Kent of a new product of theirs they would need labels for, which Jack promises they can do. Although, Kent later finds out Dura-Stick cannot make the desired products so must use another company and mark up the prices so Dura-Stick can still make profit. Kent uses the company’s image as leverage to convince Jack to take the deal. This situation can be argued in different ways for Kent and Dura Stick. Kent knows that he has to land a big time  account and he knows he must do so in order to provide for his family. Though he does lie to customer, he isn’t doing anything illegal. Nozick’s belief of just acquisition is an excellent example in this situation. As long as the seller had rightful ownership, the tr ansaction is just and proper, but if not, then possession is not proper and victims have to be compensated or transaction undone. In contradictive of Nozick, Aristotle’s theory of virtue would argue that this case is exactly what a person with virtuous ethics shouldn’t do. Virtues are traits of character that you must practice actively so that they become a part of you and shapes you into becoming a virtuous ethical person. Because of his actions, Kent is putting in jeopardy his honesty, loyalty, self-control virtues, shaping him in the wrong ethical approach. These theories emphasize different aspects of an ethical dilemma and lead to the most ethically correct resolution according to the guidelines within the ethical theory itself. People can use these theories and the wisdom of these philosophers to determine what is ethical and what is not. Though all decisions have their advantages and disadvantages, by applying this knowledge one can come closer to making the right ethical decision.

Inclusive Education Essay

According to Verma & Bagley, â€Å"Equality has long been a major goal of education around the world. As early as 1948, Article 26 of the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that, â€Å"everyone has the right to education† and â€Å"education shall be free, at least at the elementary and fundamental stages† (2007, p. 3). In relation to this statement, most governments who are members of the United Nation have made substantial efforts geared towards the realization of this Universal Declaration of Human rights. There is a credible evidence to suggest that educational investment on an individual not only benefit the individual personally; in terms of their earnings, but the society as a whole in both economic and social areas ( Verma, & Bagley, 2007). Inclusion is a philosophy that focuses on the process of adjusting the home, school and the larger society to accommodate persons with diverse needs. All individuals regardless of their differences are accorded the opportunity to interact, play, learn, work and experience the feeling of belonging. Besides, they are also allowed to develop in accordance with their potential and abilities. Inclusion therefore, calls for various persons to be fully involved in all aspects of life which include: education, employment, access to information, decision making process, community and domestic activities, recreational and social activities, and access to consumer goods and services such as electricity and clean water supply (Hegarty, 1993). Inclusion is about the following: welcoming diversity, benefiting all (learners) with or without special needs, children in or out of school who may feel excluded, providing equal access to education to all learners, continuous search to finding better ways of responding to diversity, identification and removal of barriers to education, stimulating creativity and problem solving by all, learners who risk marginalization, exclusion and/or underachievement of all learners, reforming schools and other institutions to ensure that every child receives quality and appropriate education within these schools, and having a positive mind set and start seeing the possibilities rather than impossibilities, and finally it is about improving learning environment and providing opportunities for all learners to become successful in their learning experiences (Hegarty, 1993). Inclusive education is a philosophy that ensures that, schools, centres of learning and other educational settings and systems are open to all children. This enables the learners to be included in all aspects of school-life. According to UNESCO (2001), Inclusive Education takes the Education For All agenda foreword. This is done by finding the ways of enabling schools to serve all learners in their communities as part of an Inclusive Education. Therefore, an inclusive school includes learners with various diversities and differentiates educational experiences to cater for the various diversities (UNESCO, 2001). The benefits of Inclusive Education include, all learners learn and grow in the environment that they will eventually live and work. As participation of those who are â€Å"different† takes root, all learners and teachers gain the virtues of being accommodating, accepting, patient and co-operative. Other children gain some valuable virtues such as being considerate, patient and humble as they support their peers with special needs. It should also be remembered that some children with special needs are as well gifted and therefore other children or learners can as well benefit form them thus, it is not only the other way round. Besides, Inclusive Education offers to the teachers, an opportunity to share ideas and knowledge with each other, parent, and significant others, thus making education a meaningful aspect of everyday life. The also develop their skills and abilities when working as a team to address the challenges. This may also boost their status in the community. In addition, Inclusive Education creates a school for all, where everybody benefits resulting to an inclusive society. Further, the self-esteem of children who have special needs in education is improved. Inclusive Education is cost effective and gives equal opportunities to all children, thus promoting the right to all to education. Some of the concerns from the educators about barrier to inclusion frequently include: the school factors which include classroom factors like poor classroom arrangement, student factors like negative attitudes of learner with or without special needs towards each other, teacher factor which might range from negative attitude towards learners with special needs to inadequate training on various aspects of Inclusive Education. According to Loreman, Deppeler & Harvey, â€Å"Secondary teachers in Victoria, Australia, were found to lack the skills required to modify curriculum for children with diverse abilities and were reported to be in urgent need of training in this area in a study conducted by Grbich and Sykes. † (2005, p. 6). Curriculum factor which, often, is mostly rigid and some teachers lack the ability or knowhow to modify it; therefore, do not take into consideration the needs of the diverse learners. There are sub- standard government schools, negative attitude on the part of policy makers towards education of children with special needs, special education is at times planned on disability levels rather than on ability levels, there is a correlation between disability and extreme poverty levels (Hegarty & Alur, 2002). The other major concern is the support services and resource factors. Learners with special needs require basic support servicers for learning to be effective in an inclusive setting which are usually lacking in most inclusive setting. Examples of support services that can be made available to these learners include the following: resource rooms which should be adequately resourced, itinerant services, provision of educational resources relevant to their needs, parental support is also very paramount, technical support such as sign language interpreters and Braille transcribers, teacher-aides, peer support, physiotherapy, guidance and counselling, occupational therapies, community support and finally, provision of required equipment ( Daniels & Garner, 1999). â€Å"One of the major stumbling blocks to inclusion lies in the financial arrangement currently in place. Funding arrangements do not encourage inclusion, and the problem is not unique to England and Wales. The situation is similar in USA† ( Daniels & Garner 1999 p. 70). Collaboration and community involvement is very important. Lack of the same often hinders the process of inclusion. Collaboration and community involvement can be done through parental involvement, community involvement, partnership and networking, school management involvement, interactive relationships among the various stakeholders and home based programmes (Hornby, 1995). Some of the best practices that might alleviate the challenges faced in the practice of Inclusive Education may be adopted from the principles of Inclusive Education. These are principles that govern the practice of Inclusive Education. It calls for equalization of opportunities for all learners to experience normal mainstream activities, while making deliberate and appropriate measures to ensure quality education for all. Besides, Inclusive Education calls for a child centred curriculum and the learner to attend the school that he would naturally go to in his community if he had no special needs. In addition, it advocates for accessibility to the learning process and curriculum by all learners by differentiating the learning and assessment process according to the learner’s needs (Mitchell, 2007). Furthermore, Inclusive Education addresses the needs of all learners with visible or invisible learning difficulties such as visual, hearing, physical, intellectual, communication, emotional and behavioural, bereavement from HIV and AIDs, child abuse, poverty, racism, malnourishment, emotional effects of war, divorce, family separation and living on streets. It also recognises and caters for individual differences in race, religion, abilities, disabilities or circumstances are not seen as challenges but as resources. Inclusive Education also plans for positive learning opportunities with support to learners with special needs as an integral part of the ordinary school. Even further, Inclusive Education requires change of negative attitude, negative behaviours, teaching methodologies, curricula, and environments to meet the needs of all learners, hence overcoming barriers to learning and development and finally, Inclusive Education calls on special needs education service providers to work closely with others within the community such as health and social worker emphasizing prevention and early intervention strategies to minimize the occurrence and the impact of disabilities in the community. Conclusion In Inclusive Education, we endeavour to provide a comprehensive educational plan that modifies the mainstream curriculum to give maximum opportunity to children with special needs, children who are marginalised, and children who are vulnerable as well as those who are neglected; in order for them to become productive members of the society. Developing positive attitude in parents, teachers, peers and the community at large towards the various categories of children with special needs (Mitchell, 2007). Providing equal opportunities to all children to share knowledge, resources and experiences. Suggesting approaches and teaching methodologies to accommodate all children in regular classes regardless of their diversities or disabilities. Developing and implementing a curriculum that is all inclusive or flexible and accessible. Reaching the unreached children and youths within the regular education. Facilitating inclusion of children in all aspects of life. Identifying and minimizing if not eradicating all barriers to learning and development, and finally, minimizing the effects of disabilities on the child (Smith, 1998).